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{{otheruses}}{{taxobox
|name = Saffron crocus
|image = Saffran crocus sativus moist.jpg
|image_caption = ''C. sativus'' flower with red stigmas
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Monocots]]
|ordo = [[Asparagales]]
|familia = [[Iridaceae]]
|subfamilia = [[Crocoideae]]
|genus = ''[[Crocus]]''
|species = '''''C. sativus'''''
|binomial = ''Crocus sativus''
|binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|}}

'''Saffron''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ˈsæf.ɹən] / [ˈsæf.ɹɒn]}}) is a [[spice]] derived from the [[flower]] of the '''saffron crocus''' (''Crocus sativus''), a species of [[crocus]] in the family [[Iridaceae]]. A ''C. sativus'' flower bears three [[gynoecium|stigma]]s, each the [[:wikt:distal|distal]] end of a [[carpel]]. Together with their [[style (botany)|style]]s—stalks connecting stigmas to their host plant—stigmas are dried and used in cooking as a seasoning and colouring agent. Saffron, for decades the world's most expensive spice by weight,<ref name="Rau_53">{{Harvnb|Rau|1969|p=53}}.</ref><ref name="Hill_272"/> is native to [[Southwest Asia]].<ref name="Hill_272"/><ref name="Grigg_287">{{Harvnb|Grigg|1974|p=287}}.</ref> 

Saffron is marked by a bitter [[basic taste|taste]] and an [[iodoform]]- or [[hay]]-like fragrance; these result from the chemicals [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].<ref name = "McGee_423"/><ref name = "Katzer_2001"/> A [[carotenoid]] dye, [[crocin]], allows saffron to impart a rich [[saffron (color)|golden-yellow hue]] to dishes and textiles. Saffron has further [[medicine|medicinal]] applications.

The word ''saffron'' stems from the [[Latin]] word ''{{lang|la|safranum}}'' via the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''{{lang|fr|safran}}''. ''{{lang|la|Safranum}}'' is related to the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''{{lang|it|zafferano}}'' and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''{{lang|es|azafrán}}''.<ref name="Harper_2001">{{Harvnb|Harper|2001}}.</ref> ''Safranum'' derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''{{transl|ar|DIN|aṣfar}}'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|أَصْفَر}}), which means "[[yellow]]," via the Persian [[paronym]]ous ''{{transl|ar|DIN|zaʻfarān}}'' ({{rtl-lang|ar|زَعْفَرَان}}).<ref name="Katzer_2001" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Kumar V |title=The Secret Benefits of Spices and Condiments |publisher=Sterling |year=2006 |pages=103 |isbn=1-8455-7585-7 |accessdate=2007-12-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AaTpWEIlgNwC }}</ref>

==Biology==

The domesticated saffron crocus (''C. sativus'') is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, possibly of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''<ref name = "Deo_1"/><ref>[http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043176395 DNA analysis in ''Crocus sativus'' and related Crocus species]</ref><ref>[http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=650_1 M. Grilli Caiola - Saffron reproductive biology]</ref> that originated in [[Crete]]—not, as was once generally believed, in [[Central Asia]].<ref name = "Katzer_2001"/> The saffron crocus resulted when ''C. cartwrightianus'' was subjected to extensive [[artificial selection]] by growers seeking longer stigmas. Being sterile, the plant's purple flowers fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction depends on human assistance: [[corm]]s, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, reproducing via this division into up to ten "cormlets" that yield new plants.<ref name = "Deo_1"/> Corms are small brown globules up to {{convert|4.5|cm}} in diameter and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers. 

{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float: left; margin: 0 1em 1em 0; width: 125px; border: 1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%;"
|- bgcolor=#90ee90
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''Morphology'''
|- style="background:white; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Koeh-194.jpg|center|125px|''Crocus sativus'', from ''Kohler's Medicinal Plants'' (1887)]]
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ff4619;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; Stigma
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#f3df5a;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; [[Stamen]]s
|- bgcolor=#eeffee 
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#f7c9af;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; Corolla
|- bgcolor=#eeffee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#bd9655;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; [[Corm]]
|}

After [[estivation|aestivating]] in summer, the plant sends up five to eleven narrow and nearly vertical green leaves, each up to {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of [[lilac (colour)|lilac]] to a darker and more striated [[mauve]].<ref name="Willard_3">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=3}}.</ref> Upon flowering, plants average less than {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="DPIWE_2005">{{Harvnb|DPIWE|2005}}.</ref> A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma {{convert|25|-|30|mm|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name = "Deo_1"/>

==Cultivation==

[[File:Crocus sativus2.jpg|thumb|upright|Saffron crocus flowers in [[Osaka Prefecture]], [[Japan]]]]

Saffron crocus thrives in climates similar to that of the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]] or the [[North America]]n [[chaparral]], where hot, dry summer breezes blow across arid and semi-arid lands. The plant can nonetheless tolerate cold winters by surviving frosts as low as {{convert|-10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.<ref name="Deo_1">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p= 1}}.</ref><ref name="Willard_2-3">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp= 2–3}}.</ref> [[Irrigation]] is required if not grown in moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{convert|1000|-|1500|mm|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{convert|500|mm|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{convert|400|mm|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier. Rainfall timing is key: generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather ''during'' flowering spurs disease and low yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm crops,<ref name="Deo_2">{{Harvnb |Deo|2003|p=2}}.</ref> as do the digging actions of rabbits, rats, and birds. [[Roundworm|Nematodes]], leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and [[corm]] rot pose other threats.

Plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight; they fare poorly in shady conditions. Planting is thus best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere), maximizing sun exposure. Planting is mostly done in June in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], where corms are lodged {{convert|7|to-|15|cm}} deep. Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors affecting yields. Mother corms planted more deeply yield higher-quality saffron, though they produce fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers have found that planting corms {{convert|15|cm}} deep and in rows spaced 2–3&nbsp;cm apart optimizes thread yields, whereas planting depths of 8–10&nbsp;cm optimizes flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers have devised different depths and spacings to suit their local climates.

Saffron crocuses grow best in [[friable]], loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Raised beds are traditionally used to promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30&nbsp;tonnes of manure per [[hectare]]. Afterwards&mdash;and with no further manure application&mdash;corms were planted.<ref name = "Deo_3"/> After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.<ref name = "Willard_3-4">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|pp=3–4}}.</ref> Furthermore, saffron crocuses bloom within a period of one or two weeks.<ref name="Willard_4">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=4}}.</ref> Approximately 150 flowers yield {{convert|1|g}} of dry saffron threads; to produce 12&nbsp;g of dried saffron (72&nbsp;g freshly harvested), 1&nbsp;kg of flowers are needed (1&nbsp;lb for 0.2&nbsp;oz of dried saffron). One fresh-picked flower yields an average {{convert|30|mg}} of fresh saffron or {{convert|7|mg}} of dried saffron.<ref name="Deo_3">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}.</ref>

==Chemistry==

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:213px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''[[Crocin]]'''
|- align="center" style="background:white; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[File:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|right|225px|α–crocin formation mechanism]]<br/>[[Esterification|Esterification reaction]] between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]]
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:7px; height:10px; background:#A6CAF0;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Anomer|β]]-[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose 
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:7px; height:10px; background:#000000;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Crocetin
|}

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:200px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''[[Picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]]'''
|- align="center" style="background:white; color:#111111;" 
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[File:Picrocrocin safranal highlighted.png|right|200px|Picrocrocin, with the safranal moiety shaded with saffron colour]]<br/>Chemical structure of [[picrocrocin]]<ref name = "Deo_4"/>
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:25px; height:10px; background:#F5D76C;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Safranal]] [[moiety]]
|- bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| style="width:25px; height:10px; background:#AEAEFF;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; [[Anomer|β]]-[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative
|}

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,<ref name = "Abdullaev_1"/> many of which are carotenoids, including [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], and various α- and β-[[carotene]]s. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]] ([[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]]: 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid). This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.<ref name = "Abdullaev_1"/> Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.<ref name = "Abdullaev_1"/> Meanwhile, crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[hydrophile|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses (which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]]), a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based (non-fatty) foods such as rice dishes.<ref name="McGee_422">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=422}}.</ref>

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:213px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''Chemical composition'''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| align="center" | Component || Mass %
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[carbohydrate]]s|| align="center" | 12.0–15.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[water (molecule)|water]] || align="center" | 9.0–14.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[peptide|polypeptides]] || align="center" | 11.0–13.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[cellulose]] || align="center" | 4.0–7.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[lipid]]s || align="center" | 3.0–8.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[mineral]]s || align="center" | 1.0–1.5
|- align="center" bgcolor=#ffffff
|miscellaneous<br/>non-[[nitrogen]]ous|| align="center" | 40.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Dharmananda|2005}}''
|}

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:175px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEE9BF
| colspan="2" align="center" |'''Proximate analysis'''
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC align="center" 
| align="center" | Component || width="50" |  Mass %
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|Water-soluble components|| align="center" | 53.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Natural gum|Gums]]|| align="center" | 10.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;Pentosans|| align="center" | 8.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Pectin]]s|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Starch]]|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Crocin|α–Crocin]]|| align="center" | 2.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;Other [[carotenoid]]s|| align="center" | 1.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Lipid]]s|| align="center" | 12.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;Non-volatile oils|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;Volatile oils|| align="center" | 1.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Protein]]|| align="center" | 12.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|Inorganic matter ("ash")|| align="center" | 6.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|&nbsp;&nbsp;→&nbsp;&nbsp;[[hydrochloric acid|HCl]]-soluble ash|| align="center" | 0.5
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Water]]|| align="center" | 10.0
|- bgcolor=#ffffff
|[[Natural fiber|Fiber]] (crude)|| align="center" | 5.0
|- align="center" bgcolor=#F5F5DC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=46}}''
|}

The bitter [[glucoside]] picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: {{chem|C|16|H|26|O|7}}; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1- carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Significantly, picrocrocin is a truncated version (produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage) of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal. The reddish-coloured<ref name = "Leffingwell_1"/> zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the [[retina]] of the human eye.

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.<ref name="Deo_4">{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=4}}.</ref> Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.<ref name="McGee_423">{{Harvnb|McGee|2004|p=423}}.</ref><ref name="Dharmananda">{{Harvnb|Dharmananda|2005}}.</ref> Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.<ref name="Leffingwell_1">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=1}}.</ref> A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".<ref name = "Leffingwell_2001_3"/> Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal.<ref name="Leffingwell_2001_3">{{Harvnb|Leffingwell|2001|p=3}}.</ref> Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of [[light]] and [[redox|oxidizing]] agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

''Crocus sativus'' has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active ingredients are [[crocin]] and [[safranal]].<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043148643
|title=Antidepressant effect of ''Crocus sativus'' L. stigma extracts and their constituents, crocin and safranal, in mice.
|publisher=www.cababstractsplus.org
|accessdate=2008-03-02
|last=
|first=
}}
</ref>

==History==

{{main|History of saffron}}

[[File:Saffron gatherers detail Thera Santorini.gif|thumb|upright|left|A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of many dealing with saffron that were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, [[Santorini]].]]

The history of saffron cultivation reaches back more than 3,000 years.<ref name=autogenerated8>{{Harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}.</ref> The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was ''Crocus cartwrightianus''. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas. Thus, a sterile mutant form of ''C. cartwrightianus'', ''C. sativus'', emerged in late [[Bronze Age]] [[Crete]].<ref name="Goyns_1">{{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=1}}.</ref> Experts believe saffron was first documented in a 7th century [[Before Christ|BC]] [[Assyria]]n botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]]. Since then, documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.<ref name="Honan_2004">{{Harvnb|Honan|2004}}.</ref> 

===Mediterranean===

[[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC, showing saffron's use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name="Ferrence">{{Harvnb|Ferrence|2004|p=1}}.</ref><ref name=autogenerated9>{{Harvnb |Honan|2004}}.</ref> Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]]. There, adventurers hoped to procure what they believed was the world's most valuable saffron.<ref name=autogenerated5>{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=2–3}}.</ref> Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus.<ref name="Willard_2">{{Harvnb | Willard |2001|p=2}}.</ref> Ancient Mediterranean peoples&mdash;including perfumers in [[Egypt]], physicians in [[Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],<ref name="Willard_58">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 58}}.</ref> and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans&mdash;used saffron in their perfumes, ointments,<ref name = "Willard_41">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=41}}.</ref> potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and medical treatments.<ref name = "Willard_41"/>

[[File:Man gathering saffron Knossos Crete crocus sativus fresco.jpg|thumb|right|This ancient [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] fresco from [[Knossos]], [[Crete]] shows a man (stooped blue figure) gathering the saffron harvest.]]

In late [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] Egypt, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.<ref name="Willard_55">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p = 55}}.</ref> Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.<ref name="Willard_34-35">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=34–35}}.</ref> Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]] cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]].<ref name="Willard_59">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p=59}}.</ref> [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].<ref>Celsus, de Medicina, ca. 30 AD, transl. Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1935 [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/home.html]</ref>  Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th century AD [[Moors]] or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.<ref name="Willard_63">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p= 63}}.</ref>

===Asia===

[[File:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The {{convert|17.8|m}} [[monolith]] of [[Gomateshwara]], dating to 978–993 AD, is anointed with saffron every 12 years by thousands of devotees as part of the [[Mahamastakabhisheka]] festival.]]

Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric beasts in what is today [[Iraq]].<ref name=autogenerated6>{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=2}}.</ref><ref name="Humphries_20">{{harvnb|Humphries|1998|p=20}}.</ref> Later, the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.<ref name="Willard_12">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=12}}.</ref> Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient [[Persians]] cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]  by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,<ref name=autogenerated3>{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 2}}.</ref> ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.<ref name="Willard_17-18">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=17–18}}.</ref> Thus, saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of [[Melancholia|melancholy]]. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name=autogenerated4>{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 41}}.</ref> During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops mimicked the practice and brought saffron-bathing back to Greece.<ref name="Willard_54-55">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=54–55}}.</ref>

Theories explaining saffron's arrival in [[South Asia]] conflict. Traditional [[Kashmir]]i and [[China|Chinese]] accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.<ref name="Lak_1998b">{{harvnb|Lak| 1998b}}.</ref><ref name="Fotedar_128">{{harvnb|Fotedar|1998–1999|p= 128}}.</ref><ref name="Dalby_2002_95">{{harvnb|Dalby|2002|p=95}}.</ref> Meanwhile, historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,<ref name=autogenerated1>{{harvnb|McGee|2004|p=422}}.</ref> attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks<ref name="Dalby_2003_256">{{harvnb|Dalby|2003|p=256}}.</ref> or to a Persian invasion and colonization of Kashmir. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy.<ref name=autogenerated4 /> From there, saffron use in foods and dyes spread throughout South Asia. [[Buddhist]] monks in [[India]] adopted saffron-coloured robes after the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Siddhartha Gautama]]'s death.<ref name="Tarvand_2005"/> However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].<ref>{{citation |last1=Finlay |first1=Victoria |title=Colour: A Natural History of the Palette |page=224 |publisher=Random House |year=2002 |month=December |day=30 |isbn=0-8129-7142-6}}</ref>

Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia.<ref name="Fletcher_2005_11">{{harvnb|Fletcher|2005| p=11}}.</ref> On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''Shennong Bencaojing'' (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as ''Pen Ts'ao'' or ''Pun Tsao'') pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC<!--From Hayes 2001 (needs to be further verified): around 2735 BC-->. <!--From Hayes 2001: Written by-->Traditionally attributed to the legendary ''Yan'' ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) [[Shennong]], it documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.<ref name="Tarvand_2005">{{harvnb|Tarvand| 2005}}.</ref><ref name="Hayes_6">{{harvnb|Hayes|2001| p=6}}.</ref> Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise [[wine]]."<ref name="Dalby_2002_95">{{harvnb|Dalby|2002|p=95}}.</ref>

===Europe===

[[File:Thomas Becket Murder.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Medieval European [[illuminated manuscript]]s, such as this 13th century depiction of [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Becket]]'s assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of [[yellow]] and [[orange (colour)|orange]].]]

In [[Europe]], saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron was reintroduced when the [[Islam]]ic civilization "Al-Andalus" spread to [[Al-Andalus|Spain]], France, and Italy.<ref name="Willard_70">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=70}}.</ref> During the 14th century [[Black Death]], demand for saffron-based medicine skyrocketed, and much saffron had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands<ref name = "Willard_99"/> such as [[Rhodes]]. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".<ref name="Willard_99">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=99}}.</ref> The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in [[Basel]], which grew prosperous.<ref name="Willard_101">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=101}}.</ref> Cultivation and trade then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where epidemic levels of saffron adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code, under which saffron adulterators were fined, imprisoned, and executed.<ref name="Willard_103-104">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=103–104}}.</ref> Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially [[Norfolk]] and [[Suffolk]]. The Essex town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center. However, an influx of more exotic spices such as [[chocolate]], [[coffee]], [[tea]], and [[vanilla]] from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.<ref name="Willard_117">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=117}}.</ref><ref name="Willard_132-133">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=132–133}}.</ref> Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation endure.<ref name="Willard_133">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=133}}.</ref>

Europeans brought saffron to the [[Americas]] when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe.<ref name = "Willard_143"/> By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] were cultivating saffron throughout eastern [[Pennsylvania]]. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the [[Philadelphia]] commodities exchange was set equal to that of [[gold]].<ref name="Willard_138">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=138}}.</ref> The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the [[War of 1812]], when many saffron-transporting merchant vessels were destroyed.<ref name="Willard_138-139">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=138–139}}.</ref> Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.<ref name="Willard_142-146">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=142–146}}.</ref> American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].<ref name = "Willard_143"/>

==Trade and use==

{{main|Trade and use of saffron}}

[[File:ValencianPaella.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the [[cuisine of Spain|Spanish]] ''[[paella|paella valenciana]]'', and is responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring.]]

Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with [[grass]]y or [[hay]]-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in [[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian]] ([[Persian cuisine|Persian]]), [[Arab cuisine|Arab]], Central [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], [[European cuisine|European]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], and [[Cornwall|Cornish]] cuisines. Confectionaries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa''). Medicinally, saffron has a long history as part of traditional healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having [[anticarcinogen]]ic (cancer-suppressing),<ref name = "Abdullaev_1"/> anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and [[antioxidant]]-like properties.<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{Harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Assimopoulou_2005">{{Harvnb|Assimopoulou|2005|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Chang">{{Harvnb|Chang|Kuo|Wang|1964|p=1}}.</ref> Early studies show that saffron may protect the eyes from the direct effects of bright light and retinal stress apart from slowing down [[Macular_degeneration|macular degeneration]] and [[Retinitis_pigmentosa|retinitis pigmentosa]].<ref>http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/3/1254</ref><ref>http://vision.edu.au/news/acevs%20saffron.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.vision.edu.au/AnnualReports/ACEVS%20Report%202007.pdf</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in [[China]] and India, and in perfumery.<ref name="Dalby_2002_138">{{Harvnb|Dalby|2002|p=138}}.</ref>

{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:300px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- bgcolor=#ff8888
| colspan="2" align="center" | '''World saffron cultivation patterns'''
|- style="background:white; color:#111111;" align="center"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Saffron crocus sativus modern world production.png|center|300px]]
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#800000;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Major growing regions
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#ff0000;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Major producing nations
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee 
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ff5555;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Minor growing regions
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ffaeae;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Minor producing nations
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee 
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#8080ff;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Major trading centres (current)
|- bgcolor=#ffeeee
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#97cbff;" | || &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; Major trading centres (historical)
|}

Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300&nbsp;tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide.<ref name="Katzer_2001">{{Harvnb|Katzer|2001}}.</ref> [[Iran]], Spain, India, Greece, [[Azerbaijan]], [[Morocco]], and Italy, in decreasing order of production, are the major producers of saffron.

A pound of dry saffron requires 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of a football field's area of cultivation (110,000-170,000 flowers or two football fields for a kilogram).<ref name="Hill_273">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=273}}.</ref><ref name="Rau_35">{{Harvnb|Rau|1969|p=35}}.</ref> Some forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref name="Lak_1998">{{Harvnb|Lak|1998}}.</ref> Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.<ref name="Goyns_8">{{Harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=8}}.</ref> 
Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound (US$1,100–11,000/kg)—equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilogram. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2,200/£1,100/€1,550 per kilogram).<ref name="Hill_272">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=272}}.</ref> A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

==Cultivars==

[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran]]

Several saffron [[cultivar]]s are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish, while the most intense varieties tend to be [[Iran]]ian in origin. Westerners may face significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some [[organically grown]]. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities.<ref name="Willard_143">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=143}}.</ref><ref name="Willard_201">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|p=201}}.</ref>

[[File:Red-crocus-thread-greek-v2.jpg|thumb|right|Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about {{convert|20|mm}}.]]

Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (''zafferano dell'Aquila'')—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition-era]] Spain. But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, [[Sardinia]]. There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

==Grade==

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:208px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#CDC0B0
! colspan="2" | Minimum saffron colour<br/> grading standards ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632)
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| ISO Grade<br/>(category) || Crocin-specific<br/>[[absorbance]] (<math>A_\lambda</math>) score<br/>(at λ=440 [[nanometer|nm]])
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| I   || > 190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| II  || 150–190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| III || 110–150
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
| IV  || 80–110
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}

Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic [[absorbance]]. Absorbance is defined as <math>A_\lambda = -\log(I/I_0)</math>, with <math>A_\lambda</math> as absorbance ([[Beer-Lambert law]]) and indicates degree of transparency (<math>I/I_0</math>, the ratio of light intensity exiting the sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light. 

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:160px; border:1px #bbbbbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- align="center" bgcolor=#CDC0B0
! colspan="2"  |  Spanish national saffron<br/>grading standards
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| Grade        || [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] score
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Coupe''     || > 190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''La Mancha'' || 180–190
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Río''       || 150–180
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Standard''  || 145–150
|- align="center" bgcolor=#FFFFFF
|''Sierra''    || < 110
|- align="center" bgcolor=#EEDFCC
| colspan="2" align="center" | ''Source: {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}

For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific [[photon]] [[wavelength]] of 440 [[nanometer|nm]] in a given dry sample of spice.<ref name = "Tarvand_2005b"/> Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores.<ref name="Tarvand_2005b"> {{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}.</ref> However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters.<ref name="Hill_274">{{Harvnb|Hill|2004|p=274}}.</ref>

Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration&mdash;particularly among the cheapest grades&mdash;continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.<ref name="Willard_102-104">{{Harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=102–104}}.</ref> Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beet]]s, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed [[silk]] fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades.<ref name=autogenerated7>{{Harvnb|Tarvand|2005}}.</ref> Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.<ref name="ABC">{{Harvnb|Australian Broadcasting Corporation|2003}}.</ref><ref name="Hussain">{{Harvnb|Hussain|2005}}.</ref>

==See also==

{{Topics related to saffron}}

==Notes==

[[File:Crocus sativus1.jpg|thumb|right|Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in [[Osaka Prefecture]] (大阪府), [[Kansai]], [[Honshū]], Japan]]
[[File:Crocus sativus sahuran.jpg|thumb|right|A saffron crocus flower]]

{{reflist|2}}

==References==

{{Refbegin|2}} 

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* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = McGee
 | Given1      = H
 | Year        = 2004
 | Title       = On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen
 | Publisher   = Scribner
 | ID          = ISBN 0-684-80001-2
 | URL         = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=iX05JaZXRz0C
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Nair
 | Given1      = SC
 | Surname2    = Pannikar
 | Given2      = B
 | Surname3    = Panikkar
 | Given3      = KR
 | Year        = 1991
 | Title       = Antitumour activity of saffron (''Crocus sativus'').
 | Journal     = Cancer Letters
 | Volume      = 57
 | Issue       = 2
}}. PMID 2025883
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Park
 | Given1      = JB
 | Year        = 2005
 | Title       = Saffron
 | Journal     = USDA Phytochemical Database
 | URL         = http://www.pl.barc.usda.gov/usda_supplement/supplement_detail_b.cfm?chemical_id=140
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006
}}{{dead link|date=October 2008}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Pearce 
 | Given1      = F
 | Year        = 2005
 | Title       = Returning war-torn farmland to productivity
 | Journal     = New Scientist
 | URL         = http://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg18524831.000.html
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Rau
 | Given1      = SR
 | Year        = 1969
 | Title       = The Cooking of India
 | Publisher   = Time Life Education
 | ID          = ISBN 0-8094-0069-3
}}
* {{Harvard reference
 | Author      = Tarvand Saffron
 | Surname1    = Tarvand
 | Year        = 2005
 | Title       = What is Saffron?
 | Journal     = Tarvand Saffron Company
 | URL         = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/saffron.htm
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Author      = Tarvand Saffron
 | Surname1    = Tarvand
 | Year        = 2005b
 | Title       = Grading and Classification
 | Journal     = Tarvand Saffron Company
 | URL         = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/classification.htm
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Last1       = Willard
 | Given1      = P
 | Year        = 2001
 | Title       = Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice
 | Publisher   = Beacon Press
 | ID          = ISBN 0-8070-5008-3
 | URL         = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=WsUaFT7l3QsC
 | Access-date = January 10, 2006 
}}.
{{Refend}}

== External links ==

* {{Commons-inline|Crocus sativus}}
* {{cite web
 | last       = Duke
 | first      = Jim
 | title      = Crocus sativus
 | url        = http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318
 | work       = Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases
 | accessdate = 5 August 2009
}}

{{Dyeing}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{featured article}}

[[Category:Arabic loanwords]]
[[Category:Iridaceae]]
[[Category:Chemopreventive agents]]
[[Category:Ornamental plants]]
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Saffron| ]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Minoan civilization]]

{{Link FA|af}}
{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|tr}}

[[af:Saffraan]]
[[ar:زعفران]]
[[az:Zəfəran]]
[[bg:Шафран]]
[[ca:Safrà]]
[[cs:Šafrán setý]]
[[da:Safran]]
[[de:Safran]]
[[et:Safran]]
[[es:Crocus sativus]]
[[eo:Safrano]]
[[fa:زعفران]]
[[fr:Safran (épice)]]
[[hi:केसर]]
[[ko:사프란]]
[[id:Kuma-kuma]]
[[it:Crocus sativus]]
[[he:זעפרן]]
[[la:Safranum]]
[[lv:Safrāns]]
[[lt:Daržinis krokas]]
[[hu:Sáfrány]]
[[ms:Koma-koma]]
[[nl:Saffraan]]
[[ja:サフラン]]
[[no:Safran]]
[[pl:Szafran uprawny]]
[[pt:Açafrão]]
[[ru:Шафран]]
[[simple:Saffron]]
[[sl:Pravi žafran]]
[[sr:Шафран]]
[[fi:Sahrami]]
[[sv:Saffranskrokus]]
[[tl:Kasubha]]
[[th:หญ้าฝรั่น]]
[[tr:Safran]]
[[ur:زعفران]]
[[zh:番紅花]]